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The Evolution of Jewish Sacred Architecture
The Second Jewish Temple, model in the Israel Museum. Photo: Wikimedia Commons
In a letter to James Madison dated Sept. 20, 1785, written from Paris, Thomas Jefferson expressed his fascination with the urban aesthetics of the French capital — and his eagerness to return to the Monticello estate, in Charlottesville, Virginia, so he could incorporate the architectural ideas he had encountered in Europe into his own home. “Architecture is my delight, and putting up, and pulling down, one of my favorite amusements,” he wrote.
Truthfully, a visit to Monticello has been on my bucket list for years, and yet — somehow — I’ve never made it there. It’s just over two hours’ drive from Washington, DC, and I find myself in DC often enough.
But my visits are usually short, packed with meetings and events, and I’ve never yet managed to carve out the time to detour into Virginia’s rolling countryside to see Jefferson’s famous mountaintop retreat. One of these days, I’ll make it happen. Or at least, that’s what I keep telling myself.
What makes Monticello so compelling — beyond the fact that it was home to the man who wrote the Declaration of Independence and helped shape modern democracy — is that it’s not just a historical site. It reflects Jefferson’s unique mind — his creativity, his obsessions, and, perhaps most of all, his deep love of architecture.
Monticello wasn’t simply a house or a home — it was Jefferson’s lifelong project. He tinkered with it constantly, designing and redesigning, experimenting and innovating. It was, in his own words, his “delight.”
Jefferson wasn’t a trained architect, but he taught himself by studying the works of classical masters like Palladio and Vitruvius, poring over pattern books, and sketching countless designs and plans. Monticello’s neoclassical style — its symmetry, domed roof, and columned portico — reflects Jefferson’s belief that architecture wasn’t merely functional, but philosophical. To him, the form of a building could embody ideals: balance, order, rationality — the very foundations of an enlightened society.
And he never left it alone. The Monticello we see today is actually Version 2.0 — Jefferson tore down large sections of the original structure and rebuilt them to align with his ever-evolving vision. Inside, Monticello is filled with quirky innovations and clever inventions, revealing Jefferson’s obsession with efficiency, design, and technology.
There’s a dumbwaiter cleverly concealed in the dining room fireplace, designed to bring wine directly up from the cellar without the need for servants to interrupt. There are self-closing double doors connected by a hidden pulley mechanism, so opening or closing one would automatically move the other. And in his study, Jefferson used a rotating bookstand that could hold five open books at once — perfect for a man who often researched multiple sources simultaneously.
Jefferson’s bed was tucked into an alcove wall, a space-saving design allowing him to step directly into his study or bedroom, depending on which side he exited. But perhaps the most remarkable feature of all is the Great Clock in the entrance hall, which Jefferson personally designed.
Powered by an intricate system of weights and pulleys, the clock not only told the time but also tracked the days of the week — with the weights dropping through holes in the floor – although Saturday is visible only in the basement, because the ceiling simply wasn’t high enough to accommodate it upstairs. Every room at Monticello tells the story of a man who couldn’t stop inventing — a restless mind, always looking to bring function and beauty into perfect balance.
To Jefferson, building something wasn’t just about creating shelter, it was about expressing values, turning abstract principles into tangible form. And that idea — the notion that a building can be much more than the materials it is made of — echoes through Parshat Vayakhel, where the Israelites begin constructing something that would express divine ideals in the most concrete way possible.
But unlike Monticello, the Mishkan — the portable sanctuary described in Parshat Vayakhel — was designed from the outset for “putting up, and pulling down.” This wasn’t just a practical feature – it was its defining characteristic. As the Israelites wandered through the wilderness, they needed a movable sacred space that could travel with them, be assembled at each stop, and then carefully dismantled and transported to the next location, always ready to accompany them on their journey.
The Mishkan remained unchanged during the 40 years in the wilderness. It clung to its original design — with no tinkering, no updates, and no expansions. But the story took a new turn once Joshua led the Israelites into the Land of Israel. The Mishkan, still at the heart of the nation’s religious life, began to move from place to place, no longer simply following the needs of a nomadic people, but gradually adapting to settled realities.
Eventually, it found a semi-permanent home in Shiloh, located in the hills of central Israel, just north of modern-day Jerusalem. There, the Mishkan took on a modified form — still fundamentally the same structure, but now set upon stone foundations, replacing the original transportable supports. It became more stable, less temporary, yet it was still not a full-fledged Temple — a kind of in-between space, bridging the mobility of the wilderness with the permanence that was yet to come.
Remarkably, the Mishkan remained in Shiloh for 369 years — almost as long as King Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, which stood for 410 years. And Solomon’s Temple was, in many ways, a scaled-up version of the Mishkan. While its proportions echoed the original, everything about it was grander, more permanent, and far more elaborate — built with stone, gold, and cedar.
This first permanent temple of the Jews marked a shift from the simple, portable structure of the wilderness to a majestic, enduring edifice, a shift from divine blueprint to royal embellishment.
Centuries later, Herod the Great embarked on his own monumental architectural project: a complete renovation of the Second Temple, transforming it into one of the architectural marvels of the ancient world.
The Talmud (Bava Batra 4a) famously declares, “He who has not seen Herod’s Temple has never seen a beautiful structure in his life.” Its splendor, scale, and symmetry were a far cry from the humble, portable Mishkan of the desert, although it traced its origins to that first sacred space, meticulously crafted according to divine command.
From the Mishkan in the wilderness to Herod’s Temple in Jerusalem, Jewish sacred architecture evolved — from mobile to monumental, from simple to sublime — yet it always remained anchored in core values and ideals, with every detail reflecting a spiritual purpose transcending the material.
The Mishkan was designed to be far more than just a structure — its purpose was to serve as a space filled with prompts and triggers, physical cues that would elevate hearts and minds and lift all who entered to a higher spiritual place. Just as Jefferson infused Monticello with deliberate design elements meant to inspire thought and reflection, the Mishkan was crafted to engage the senses and the soul, transforming the physical into a gateway to the divine.
My fervent hope is that there will soon be a Third Temple in Jerusalem, one that will reflect the Mishkans and Temples of Jewish history, while also incorporating the wonders of modern design and technology — enhancing the original format, recalling its ancient beauty, and becoming an even greater tribute to God and to our enduring faith.
A journey that began in Parshat Vayakhel and has wound its way through history to the present, still awaits its final, magnificent chapter.
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US Sens. Tom Cotton, Lindsey Graham Unveil New Resolution Demanding Iran ‘Dismantle’ Nuclear Program
US Sen. Tom Cotton (R-AK) speaks during a Senate Intelligence Committee hearing on Capitol Hill in Washington, DC, March 11, 2024. Photo: REUTERS/Julia Nikhinson
US Republican Sens. Tom Cotton (AK) and Lindsey Graham (SC) on Thursday unveiled a new resolution demanding Iran completely “dismantle” its nuclear program.
The resolution was introduced as the Trump administration continued to engage in talks with Iran to negotiate a deal to curb the latter’s nuclear activity, which Western countries believe is ultimately geared to build nuclear weapons. Iran has claimed its nuclear program is for civilian energy purposes.
“Iran cannot get a nuclear weapon; that’s off the table,” Graham said during a press conference on Thursday.
The resolution calls on the White House to pursue the “complete dismantlement” of Iran’s nuclear enrichment program, cautioning that Tehran would use a nuclear warhead to “carry out one of the most extreme religious ideas on the planet” — a reference to the Islamist ideology of Iran’s rulers.
The senators called on their colleagues in Congress to support the resolution.
Graham warned that if Iran, a predominately Shi’ite country under its current theocratic system, ever acquired a nuclear weapon, then the Sunni Arab countries of the Middle East would then attempt to obtain one themselves, sparking “a nuclear arms race in the Middle East.” Graham also cautioned that Iran would use a nuclear weapon as an “insurance policy” and a tool to destroy its enemies, including Israel. The senator demanded that Iran completely scrap its nuclear program, arguing that anything short of “complete dismantlement” would be “non-negotiable.”
“The ayatollah [Iran’s supreme leader, Ali Khamenei,] and his henchmen are virtual religious Nazis,” Graham said. “They openly talk about destroying the state of Israel. They write it on the side of their missiles, and I believe them.”
Graham claimed that Iran has likely enriched enough uranium to produce at least six nuclear weapons.
The South Carolina senator predicted that Iran would also use nuclear bombs to “take over” Muslim holy sites and push the United States out of the Middle East.
“A nuclear Iran makes for a far more dangerous world,” Cotton said.
Cotton argued that Iran would use the security provided by a nuclear weapon to aggressively advance its terrorism campaigns throughout the globe. The senator cited several terror attacks tied to Iran, including the assassination attempt against US President Donald Trump last year. Cotton also cited Iran’s continued operation of proxies such as Hezbollah, Hamas, and the Houthis — all internationally designated terrorist organizations backed by Tehran.
The Arkansas senator added that an Iranian nuclear weapon would present “an existential threat to our good friend Israel,” which Iran’s leaders regularly threaten to destroy.
Israel has been among the most vocal proponents of dismantling Iran’s nuclear program, with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu arguing that the US should pursue a “Libyan option” to eliminate the possibility of Tehran acquiring a nuclear weapon by overseeing the destruction of Iran’s nuclear installations and the dismantling of equipment.
Both Graham and Cotton stated that they would be supportive of Iran obtaining a true civilian nuclear energy program. However, the senators argued that allowing Iran to enrich uranium or maintain centrifuges itself would inevitably lead to Tehran building a nuclear weapon.
As the US continues to negotiate a potential nuclear deal with Iran, the Trump administration has drawn criticism from some traditional allies who fear the White House could make too many concessions to Tehran. Critics have argued that elements of Trump’s negotiations with Iran mirror parts of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) — the 2015 deal which placed temporary restrictions on ‘nuclear program in exchange for the lifting of major international sanctions.
The 2015 deal, which the Obama administration negotiated with Iran and other world powers, allowed Iran to enrich significant quantities of uranium to low levels of purity and stockpile them. It did not directly address the regime’s ballistic missile program but included an eight-year restriction on Iranian nuclear-capable ballistic missile activities. Trump withdrew the US from the accord during his first presidential term in 2018, arguing it was too weak and would undermine American interests.
The White House has also received scrutiny from other Republicans in Congress. In a comment posted on X/Twitter, Sen. Ted Cruz (R-TX), for example, lamented, “Anyone urging Trump to enter into another Obama Iran deal is giving the president terrible advice.” Urging the White House to reverse course, Cruz added that Trump “is entirely correct when he says Iran will NEVER be allowed to have nukes. His team should be 100% unified behind that.”
Trump has threatened military strikes, additional sanctions, and tariffs if an agreement is not reached to curb Iran’s nuclear activities. However, when asked by a reporter on Wednesday whether his administration would allow Iran to maintain an enrichment program as long as it doesn’t enrich uranium to weapons-grade levels, Trump said his team had not decided. “We haven’t made that decision yet,” Trump said in the White House. “We will, but we haven’t made that decision.”
Western countries believe Iran’s nuclear program is ultimately meant to build nuclear weapons. However, Iran has claimed that its program is for civilian energy purposes.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the UN’s nuclear watchdog, reported last year that Iran had greatly accelerated uranium enrichment to close to weapons grade at some of its nuclear facilities.
The UK, France, and Germany said in a statement at the time that there is no “credible civilian justification” for Iran’s recent nuclear activity, arguing it “gives Iran the capability to rapidly produce sufficient fissile material for multiple nuclear weapons.”
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Prevost Surprises as First US Pope, Takes Name Leo XIV
Newly elected Pope Leo XIV, Cardinal Robert Prevost of the United States appears on the balcony of St. Peter’s Basilica, at the Vatican, May 8, 2025. Photo: REUTERS/Guglielmo Mangiapane
Cardinal Robert Prevost, a long-time missionary in Latin America, was elected as the surprise choice to be the new leader of the Catholic Church on Thursday, becoming the first US pope and taking the name Leo XIV.
Pope Leo appeared on the central balcony of St. Peter’s Basilica after white smoke billowed from a chimney atop the Sistine Chapel, signifying the 133 cardinal electors had chosen him as a successor to Francis, who died last month.
“Peace be with you all,” he told the cheering crowd, speaking in fluent Italian. He also spoke in Spanish during his brief address but did not say anything in English.
Prevost, 69 and originally from Chicago, has spent most of his career as a missionary in Peru and has dual Peruvian nationality. He became a cardinal only in 2023. He has given few media interviews and is known to have a shy personality.
President Donald Trump swiftly congratulated him on becoming the first US pope. “What excitement, and what a Great Honor for our Country. I look forward to meeting Pope Leo XIV. It will be a very meaningful moment!”
However, the new pope has a history of criticizing Trump and Vice President JD Vance’s policies, according to posts on the X account of Robert Prevost.
Massimo Faggioli, an Italian academic who has followed the papacy closely, suggested the tenor of the Trump presidency might have influenced the cardinals to choose a pope from the US, who could directly rebut the president.
“The international upheaval of the rhetoric of the Trump presidency, paradoxically, made possible the impossible,” said Faggioli, a professor at Villanova University in the US.
“Trump has broken many taboos, the conclave now has done the same — in a very different key.”
PRAISE FROM PERU
The appointment was welcomed by the Peruvian president Dina Boluarte.
“His closeness to those most in need left an indelible mark on the hearts of Peru,” her office said in a post on X.
Prevost becomes the 267th Catholic pope following the death of Francis, who was the first from Latin America and who ruled for 12 years.
Francis had widely sought to open the staid institution up to the modern world, enacting a range of reforms and allowing debate on divisive issues such as women’s ordination and better inclusion of LGBT Catholics.
Leo thanked Francis in his speech and repeated his predecessor’s call for a Church that is engaged with the modern world and “is always looking for peace, charity and being close to people, especially those who are suffering.”
He had not been seen as a frontrunner and there was a brief moment of uncertainty when his name was announced to the packed St. Peter’s Square, before people started to clap and cheer.
Unlike Francis, who spurned much of the trappings of the papacy from the day he was elected in 2013, Prevost wore a traditional red papal garment over his white cassock as he first appeared as Leo XIV.
SNAP, a US-based advocacy group for victims of clerical sex abuse, expressed “grave concern” about his election, renewing accusations that Prevost failed to take action against suspected predatory priests in the past in Chicago and in Peru.
“You can end the abuse crisis — the only question is, will you?” it said in a statement addressed to the new pope.
In an interview with the Vatican News website in 2023, Prevost said the Church must be transparent and honest in dealing with abuse allegations.
CHICAGO CELEBRATES
A crowd of clergy and staff members at Chicago’s Catholic Theological Union erupted in a joyful cheer as Pope Leo walked out onto the Vatican balcony, some four decades after he graduated from the South Side school.
It was an “explosion of excitement and cheers that went up in the room … many of us were just simply incredulous and just couldn’t even find words to express our delight, our pride,” said Sister Barbara Reid, president of the theology school.
Pope Leo graduated from the school in 1982 with a master’s degree. Reid called Leo intellectually brilliant, saying he has an extraordinarily compassionate heart.
“It’s an unusual blend that makes him a leader who can think critically, but listens to the cries of the poorest, and always has in mind those who are most needy,” she said.
THE NAME LEO
The last pope to take the name Leo led the Church from 1878-1903. Leo XIII was known for his devoted focus to social justice issues, and is often credited with laying the foundation for modern Catholic social teaching.
Prevost has attracted interest from his peers because of his quiet style and support for Francis, especially his commitment to social justice issues.
Prevost served as a bishop in Chiclayo, in northwestern Peru, from 2015 to 2023.
Francis brought him to Rome that year to head the Vatican office in charge of choosing which priests should serve as Catholic bishops across the globe, meaning he has had a hand in selecting many of the world’s bishops.
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Israel Warns of ‘Severe Consequences’ for Houthis, Vows to Defend Itself After US Cuts Deal With Terror Group
Smoke rises in the sky following US-led airstrikes in Sanaa, Yemen, Feb. 25, 2024. Photo: REUTERS/Adel Al Khader
Israeli Defense Minister Israel Katz on Thursday warned that the Houthis would “suffer severe consequences” if the Yemeni terrorist group continued to attack Israel, emphasizing the Jewish state’s capability to defend itself following US President Donald Trump’s unexpected deal with the Iran-backed rebel militia.
“Israel must be capable of defending itself against any threat or enemy,” Katz wrote in a post on X. “This has been the case throughout many challenges in the past and will remain true in the future.”
“I also warn the Iranian leaders who finance, arm, and operate the Houthi terrorist organization: the balance of power has shifted, and the Axis of Evil has collapsed,” the top Israeli defense official added. “What we did to Hezbollah in Beirut, to Hamas in Gaza, to Assad in Damascus, and to the Houthis in Yemen, we will also do to you in Tehran.”
Katz continued, “We will not allow anyone to harm Israel; and those who do will suffer severe consequences.”
On Sunday, the Houthis, an internationally designated terrorist group, declared they would impose a “comprehensive” aerial blockade on Israel, targeting the country’s airports in retaliation for the Israeli military’s expanded operations in Gaza.
Claiming solidarity with Palestinians in the war-torn enclave, the Iran-backed group took responsibility for a missile strike near Israel’s Ben Gurion Airport, marking the latest in a series of attacks.
While Israel’s missile defense systems have intercepted most strikes from Yemen, Sunday’s missile was the first in a series launched since March to bypass the country’s defense capabilities, following a drone strike on Tel Aviv last year.
Alongside Hezbollah and Hamas, Houthi rebels are a key part of Iran’s so-called “Axis of Resistance” against Israel and the United States.
On Wednesday, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu vowed to retaliate against the Yemeni terrorist group, reaffirming that the Jewish state will defend itself against any threat.
“Israel will defend itself by itself,” Netanyahu said in a video posted on social media. “If others join us — our American friends — all the better. If they don’t, we will still defend ourselves on our own.”
In response to the Houthis’ latest attack, Israeli forces launched major strikes on the Yemeni port of Hodeidah and the international airport in Yemen’s capital Sanaa, both facilities crucial to the Iran-backed terrorist group’s ability to operate.
The strikes came as Houthi officials revealed that their agreement with Washington to cease targeting US maritime activity in the Red Sea did not include any commitment to stop attacking Israel or ships linked to the Jewish state.
لقطات جديدة للغارات الجوية الإسرائيلية التي أصابت مطار صنعاء الدولي في اليمن. pic.twitter.com/DlzAqg5xES
— الأحداث العالمية (@NewsNow4USA) May 6, 2025
Since the Israel-Hamas war began in October 2023, the Houthis — whose slogan is “death to America, death to Israel, curse the Jews, and victory to Islam” — have targeted over 100 merchant vessels in the Red Sea with missiles and drones, causing a massive disruption of global trade.
During an Oval Office appearance on Tuesday, Trump announced that the US would halt airstrikes on the Yemeni terrorist group after it agreed to stop attacking American ships — an agreement that ended weeks of escalating tensions with the Iran-backed group and, according to US and Israeli officials, was made without prior notice to Jerusalem.
Since launching its current operation in Yemen, known as Operation Rough Rider, on March 15, the US military says it has struck over 1,000 targets, killing hundreds of Houthi fighters and numerous group leaders.
After Trump announced the deal with the Iran-backed terrorist group, Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesperson Esmaeil Baghaei praised “the end of the US aggression” on Yemen and thanked Oman for its efforts in mediating the ceasefire agreement.
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